Thi thử VSTEP – 10 Bài Reading Test 6 Part 2

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 3
Questions 21-30

Very few scientists acknowledged that animals were capable of thought. Most believed that animals reacted to things in their environment but lacked the ability to think or feel. How, then, could a scientist demonstrate that animals might, in fact, possess intelligence? Irene Pepperberg, a recent graduate of Harvard University began her research in 1977. She bought an African grey parrot she named Alex and taught him to reproduce the sounds of the English language. “I thought if he learned to communicate, I could ask him questions about how he sees the world.” she explains.

Certain skills are considered key signs of higher mental abilities: a good memory, an understanding of symbols, self-awareness, understanding of others’ motives, and creativity. Little by little, researchers have documented these abilities in other species. Sheep and elephants can recognize faces. Chimpanzees – who are genetically similar to humans – use a variety of primitive tools for eating, drinking, and hunting; they also laugh when pleased and spit to show disgust with something. Octopuses in captivity are known to amuse themselves by shooting water at laboratory staff. They may evenexhibitbasic emotions by changing color.

Alex the parrot was a surprisingly good talker. He learned how to use his voice to imitate almost 100 English words, including those for foods, colors, shapes, and numbers. Although imitation was once considered a simple skill, in recent years, cognitive scientists have revealed that it’s an extremely difficult ability. It requires the imitator to form a mental image of the other person’s body and actions and then adjust his own body parts into the same position. It is a behavior that shows an awareness of one’s self. Because Alex had mastered many English words, Pepperberg could ask him questions about a bird’s basic understanding of the world. Alex could count, as well as describe shapes, colors, and sizes for Pepperberg; he even had an elementary understanding of the abstract concept of zero.

Many of Alex’s cognitive skills, such as his ability to understand the concepts of same and different, are generally attributed only to higher mammals, particularly primates such as humans and apes. But parrots, like great apes (and humans), live a long time in complex societies. And like primates, these birds must monitor the changing relationships within the group. This may explain Alex’s ability to learn a human language. “When we take [parrots] into captivity, what they start to do is treat us as their flock,” explains Pepperberg. Parrots learn to pronounce and use our words so they can become a part of our group.

Researchers in Germany and Austria have also been studying language ability in dogs. One named Betsy has shown that she is able to learn and remember words as quickly as a two-year-old child. She has an extraordinary vocabulary of over 340 words (and counting), knows at least 15 people by name, and canlinkphotographs with the real objects they represent. Like Alex, she’s pretty smart. This is the larger lesson of animal cognition research: It humbles us. We are not alone in our ability to invent, communicate, demonstrate emotions, or think about ourselves. Still, humans remain the creative species. No other animal has built cities, created music, or made a computer.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.

PASSAGE 4
Questions 31-40

Pénicillium chrysogenum, or Pénicillium notatum is a common mold – a fungus that has multicellular arms or filaments called hyphae. It can be found living indoors on food. Its spores, units of asexual reproduction that can evolve into a new organism, and are a major cause of allergens in humans. In 1928, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered that Pénicillium notatum contained a bacteria-killing antibiotic that he named penicillin.

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 in Scotland. At the age of twenty, he entered St. Mary’s Hospital in London and studied medicine, then went on to become the assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in immunology and vaccine therapy. During World War I, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked on the frontlines where he witnessed firsthand soldiers dying of sepsis. Sepsis, or systematic inflammatory response (SIRS), is blood poisoning due to the presence of bacteria in the blood. Fleming witnessed widespread sepsis, most of which was caused by infected wounds. Antiseptics were widely available yet Fleming believed they killed only surface bacteria while failing toeradicatedeeper bacteria. After the war, Fleming was determined to find a cure for sepsis. In 1928, while researching the properties of staphylococci, a genus of gram-positive bacteria, he stumbled upon Pénicillium notatum.

By 1928, Fleming was regarded as a brilliant researcher whose laboratory was, more often than not, a mess. That same year, returning to his lab after an August holiday, he discovered that his staphylococci cultures had been contaminated by a fungus. Fleming was intent on throwing the cultures out when he noticed that the staphylococci colonies had been surrounded by an invading blue-green mold. Much to Fleming’s surprise, the invading mold had eradicated the staphylococciithad surrounded; whereas, those colonies of staphylococci that had not been touched by the mold were still thriving. He set about isolating and growing the mold which produced a substance that killed not only staphylococci, but also a number of other disease-causing bacteria, such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, meningitis and diphtheria. He called the bacteria-killing substance “mold juice.” Once he’d established that the mold was in fact part of the genus pénicillium, he called it penicillin.

In 1929, Fleming published the results of his experiments in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. Yet despite such initial promise, his work garnered little attention, for growing pénicillium was difficult while extracting the antibiotic agent, the bacteria-killing penicillin itself, was even harder. These results, combined with tests proving that penicillin worked slowly, convinced Fleming that penicillin had no commercial appeal. By 1939, Fleming, having labored long and hard over penicillin, finally turned his attention to other matters. Then, in that same year, the Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey, director of the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University, read Fleming’s paper in which he described the anti-bacterial effects of pénicillium. Florey immediately saw the potential of pénicillium and, with the help of Ernst Chain, did more research on the effects of penicillin and produced it on a large scale successfully in the US. By 1943, frontline soldiers with infections were being treated with a new wonder drug called penicillin.