Đề thi thử VSTEP Reading – Test 4 (PREP)

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

As new industrialism swept over the land in the wake of the Civil War, people flocked to the nation's cities in unprecedented numbers from rural regions, villages, and foreign countries. Housing for the new city-dwellers took many forms as new architectural styles were developed.

During this period of urban expansion, speculative builders discovered a bonanza in the form of the row house. Designed for single-family occupancy, these dwellings cost relatively little to construct because they shared common walls with their neighbors and because many could be erected side by side on a narrow street frontage. Along New York's gridiron of streets and avenues rose block after block of row houses, which, by the 1880s, were almost invariably faced with brownstone. In contrast, wooden row houses on the West Coast appeared light and airy with their coats of bright paint. San Francisco developed a particularly successful row vernacular, suitable for rich and poor alike, as typified by clusters of homes like the Rountree group, which featured Queen Anne elements in their pitched roofs and heavily decorated exteriors. Although critics likened the facades of such structures to the "puffing, paint, and powder of our female friends", the houses were efficiently planned, sanitary, and well-lighted. Virtually every dwelling boasted one or more bay windows, which were as important to sun-loving San Franciscans as brownstone fronts were to New Yorkers. As an English traveler observed, California architecture, "with all the windows gracefully leaping out at themselves", should rightly be called the "bay-window order".

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Since water is the basis of life, composing the greater part of the tissues of all living things, the crucial problem of desert animals is to survive in a world where sources of flowing water are rare. And since man's inexorable necessity is to absorb large quantities of water at frequent intervals, he can scarcely comprehend that many creatures of the desert pass their entire lives without a single drop. Uncompromising as it is, the desert has not eliminated life but only those forms unable to withstand its desiccating effects. No moist-skinned, water-loving animals can exist there. Few large animals are found: the giants of the North American desert are the deer, the coyote, and the bobcat. Since desert country is open, it holds more swift-footed, running, and leaping creatures than the tangled forest. Its population are largely nocturnal, silent, filled with reticence, and ruled by stealth. Yet they are not emaciated. Having adapted to their austere environment, they are as healthy as animals anywhere in the world.

The secret of their adjustment lies in a combination of behavior and physiology. None could survive if, like mad dogs and Englishmen, they went out in the midday sun; many would die in a matter of minutes. So most of them pass the burning hours asleep in cool, humid burrows underneath the ground, emerging to hunt only by night. The surface of the sun-baked desert averages around 150 degrees, but 18 inches down the temperature is only 60 degrees.

An example of a desert animal that has adapted to subterranean living and lack of water is the kangaroo rat. Like many desert animals, kangaroo rats stay underground during the day. At night, they go outside to look for food. As evening temperatures drop, moisture from the air forms on plants and seeds. They absorb some of this moisture and kangaroo rats take in the life-giving water as they eat.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Animals and higher-order plants depend on nitrogen that is present in soil as they cannot utilize free nitrogen from the atmosphere. To enter living systems, nitrogen must be combined with oxygen or hydrogen to form compounds such as ammonia or nitrates that plants are able to use. Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia fertilizer by a chemical process involving high pressure and high temperature. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Martinus Willem Beijerinck discovered nitrogen fixation.

The nitrogen molecule is quite inert and breaking it apart requires a considerable amount of energy. There are three processes that are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. They are atmospheric fixation, biological fixation, and industrial fixation. Atmospheric fixation occurs through lightning, forest fires, or even hot lava flows where energy breaks down nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air, thus forming nitrogen oxides. These liquefy in rain, forming nitrates, that are then carried to earth.

In biological nitrogen fixation, the nitrogen is available to some species of microorganisms. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by bacterial enzymes called nitrogenase. More than 90% of all nitrogen fixation is affected by them. There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria and symbiotic bacteria. Microorganisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. These need a chemical energy source if they are non-photosynthetic. However, if they are photosynthetic, they can utilize light energy. The free-living diazotrophs supply little fixed nitrogen to agricultural crops, whereas the symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacterias live close to plant roots and can obtain energy materials from the plants.

The symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of plants. Here they multiply the formation of root nodules, and enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in close proximity. Within the nodules, the bacteria convert the free nitrogen to nitrates, which the plant makes use of for its development.

To make certain of sufficient nodule formation and the best possible growth of legumes (beans, clover, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated, particularly in poor soils where bacteria is lacking. This system is the most important for agriculture as many legumes are then able to grow vigorously under nitrogen deficient conditions, contributing nitrogen to the farming system or as green manure included in the soil. Legumes are also a significant source of protein primarily for the developing world.

Industrial fixation takes place at a temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. In this method, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia, which in turn can be used directly as a fertilizer. It was during the early 19th century that the importance of fixed nitrogen to growing plants was understood. Where people practiced intensive agriculture, demand arose for nitrogen compounds to augment the natural supply present in the soil.

Around the same time, Chilean saltpeter was increasingly used to make gunpowder. This led to a global search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Toward the end of the 19th century, it was realized that Chilean imports would not meet future demands, and, in the event of a major war, without the Chilean supply, manufacturing sufficient weapons would not be possible.

[A] Several processes were then developed: directly combining oxygen with nitrogen, the reaction of nitrogen with calcium carbide, and the direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen. [B] Combining oxygen and nitrogen was inefficient in its use of energy. Both were costly and the process was abandoned. [C] It is named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who determined that nitrogen from the air could be combined with nitrogen under enormously high pressures and fairly high temperatures in the presence of an active mechanism to produce an extremely high quantity of ammonia. [D]

Germany heavily relied on this process during World War I, which led to a rapid expansion of the construction of nitrogen plants in many other countries. This method is now one of the leading processes of the chemical industry throughout the world.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.

Throughout Western civilization, women’s suffrage and the progression of these rights have played a pivotal role in its history. The best example of how these rights have progressed is in two nations that share a common history, Great Britain and the United States of America. [A] In England, the suffrage movement began in 1866 when prominent women’s rights reformers gathered over 1,500 signatures on a petition to Parliament appealing for the right to vote. [B] However, significant headway had not been made yet. Women’s rights activists soon grew combative and thus made certain that suffrage was a central issue. [C] In America, due to the Civil War, women's suffrage was temporarily halted. However, from 1876, campaigns, referendums, and gatherings were organized and carried out. [D]

The influence of Great Britain on the United States cannot be understated, yet there are both significant differences and similarities in how suffrage rights have progressed and evolved within each of these nations. In both countries, suffrage was based on class, race, nation, and gender. The suffragists were outside of the political establishment, campaigning alone and without support. They were predominately white and middle class in both countries, and their arguments reflected their class. In the first phase of the two countries, the arguments for suffrage focused on equality, and then turned to women’s contribution to nation building after World War I.

Feudalism and hereditary rule predated the establishment of limited suffrage in Great Britain. Aspects of this system remained for a significant period of time with only the wealthy and land-owning males allowed to vote. This system was based on the principles that the wealthy would vote in the interests of the nation, just as the monarchy of Britain would rule in the interest of all its subjects. This distributive system of power played an important role in the history of the United States.

English landowners asserted their right to vote based on their personal wealth. Aspects of this trend are clearly evident in America. In 1776, a clause that guaranteed voting rights for white, male landowners was included in the United States Declaration of Independence. This was identical to the suffrage rights in Great Britain at that time in history. Voting was generally perceived not as a right, but as a privilege that only those who owned land could exercise.

By 1786, the United States Constitution had been amended to give individual states the power to establish their own suffrage rights. As a result of this, in 1791, Vermont passed a law declaring that all white males, regardless of whether they possessed property or not, could vote. In contrast, it was not until the Chartist movement in Great Britain in the 1840s that a popular movement had demanded wider suffrage rights. The eventual failure of the Chartist movement in 1850 ensured that only one in every five adult males in England was entitled to vote. While popular suffrage reform stalled in Great Britain, it accelerated in America during this period. In the wake of the American Civil War, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution granted African-American men the right to vote throughout the country. However, just as in England, women remained excluded by law from voting.

In the aftermath of the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to include women. This change took place first in America in 1920 with the 1991 amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1928 that voting rights between men and women in Great Britain were equalized. As suffrage rights have extended to include groups formerly excluded, this trend continues in the West. In 1971, a further amendment lowered the age of voting from 20 to 18 in America. Today, in Great Britain and the majority of Western nations, the voting age is 18.

Initially, the progression of suffrage rights in America mirrored Great Britain’s. The wealthy male landowners dominated voting and, therefore, political power, and voted only in their interests. In the wake of the American Civil War and the first World War, suffrage rights were extended to African-Americans, women, and individuals possessing no property, which boosted their status from lower class citizens to a higher level. Today, suffrage, in its universal form, plays a key role in democracies worldwide.